Cheese Making

Primitive forms of cheese have been made since humans started domesticating animals. No one knows exactly who made the first cheese, but, according to one ancient legend, it was made accidentally by an Arabian merchant crossing the desert. The merchant put his drinking milk in a bag made from a sheep’s stomach. The natural rennin in the lining of the pouch, along with the heat from the sun, caused the milk to coagulate and then separate into curds and whey. At nightfall, the whey satisfied the man’s thirst, and the curd (cheese) had a delightful flavour and satisfied his hunger.

From its birthplace in the Middle East, cheese making spread as far as England with the expansion of the Roman Empire. During the Middle Ages, monks and merchants of Europe made cheese an established food of that area. In 1620, cheese and cows were part of the ship’s stores carried to North America by the Pilgrims on the Mayflower. Until the middle of the 19th century, cheese was a local farm product. Few, if any, distinct varieties of cheese were developed deliberately. Rather, cheese makers in each locality made a cheese that, when ripened under specific conditions of air temperature and humidity, mold, and milk source, acquired certain characteristics of its own. Different varieties appeared largely as a result of accidental changes or modifications in one or more steps of the cheese-making process. Because there was little understanding of the bacteriology and chemistry involved, these changes were little understood and difficult to duplicate. Cheese making was an art, and the process was a closely guarded secret that was passed down from one generation to the next.

With increasing scientific knowledge came a greater understanding of the bacteriological and chemical changes that are necessary to produce many types of cheese. Thus, it has become possible to control more precisely each step in the cheese-making process and to manufacture a more uniform product. Cheese making is now a science as well as an art.

Fundamentals of cheese making

The cheese-making process consists of removing a major part of the water contained in fresh fluid milk while retaining most of the solids. Since storage life increases as water content decreases, cheese making can also be considered a form of food preservation through the process of milk fermentation. The fermentation of milk into finished cheese requires several essential steps: preparing and inoculating the milk with lactic-acid–producing bacteria, curdling the milk, cutting the curd, shrinking the curd (by cooking), draining or dipping the whey, salting, pressing, and ripening. These steps (see figure) begin with four basic ingredients: milk, microorganisms, rennet, and salt.

Inoculation and curdling

Milk for cheese making must be of the highest quality. Because the natural microflora present in milk frequently include undesirable types called psychrophiles, good farm sanitation and pasteurization or partial heat treatment are important to the cheese-making process. In addition, the milk must be free of substances that may inhibit the growth of acid-forming bacteria (e.g., antibiotics and sanitizing agents). Milk is often pasteurized to destroy pathogenic microorganisms and to eliminate spoilage and defects induced by bacteria. However, since pasteurization destroys the natural enzymes found in milk, cheese produced from pasteurized milk ripens less rapidly and less extensively than most cheese made from raw or lightly heat-treated milk.

During pasteurization, the milk may be passed through a standardizing separator to adjust the fat-to-protein ratio of the milk. In some cases the cheese yield is improved by concentrating protein in a process known as ultrafiltration. The milk is then inoculated with fermenting microorganisms and rennet, which promote curdling.

The fermenting microorganisms carry out the anaerobic conversion of lactose to lactic acid. The type of organisms used depends on the variety of cheese and on the production process. Rennet is an enzymatic preparation that is usually obtained from the fourth stomach of calves. It contains a number of proteolytic (protein-degrading) enzymes, including rennin and pepsin. Some cheeses, such as cottage cheese and cream cheese, are produced by acid coagulation alone. In the presence of lactic acid, rennet, or both, the milk protein casein clumps together and precipitates out of solution; this is the process known as curdling, or coagulation. Coagulated casein assumes a solid or gellike structure (the curd), which traps most of the fat, bacteria, calcium, phosphate, and other particulates. The remaining liquid (the whey) contains water, proteins resistant to acidic and enzymatic denaturation (e.g., antibodies), carbohydrates (lactose), and minerals.

Lactic acid produced by the starter culture organisms has several functions. It promotes curd formation by rennet (the activity of rennet requires an acidic pH), causes the curd to shrink, enhances whey drainage (syneresis), and helps prevent the growth of undesirable microorganisms during cheese making and ripening. In addition, acid affects the elasticity of the finished curd and promotes fusion of the curd into a solid mass. Enzymes released by the bacterial cells also influence flavour development during ripening.

Salt is usually added to the curd. In addition to enhancing flavour, it helps to withdraw the whey from the curd and inhibits the growth of undesirable microorganisms.

Cutting and shrinking

After the curd is formed, it is cut with fine wire “knives” into small cubes approximately one centimetre (one-half inch) square. The curd is then gently heated, causing it to shrink. The degree of shrinkage determines the moisture content and the final consistency of the cheese. Whey is removed by draining or dipping. The whey may be further processed to make whey cheeses (e.g., ricotta) or beverages, or it may be dried in order to preserve it as a food ingredient.